| Non-Rationalised Science NCERT Notes and Solutions (Class 6th to 10th) | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6th | 7th | 8th | 9th | 10th | ||||||||||
| Non-Rationalised Science NCERT Notes and Solutions (Class 11th) | ||||||||||||||
| Physics | Chemistry | Biology | ||||||||||||
| Non-Rationalised Science NCERT Notes and Solutions (Class 12th) | ||||||||||||||
| Physics | Chemistry | Biology | ||||||||||||
Class 11th Chemistry NCERT Notes and Solutions (Non-Rationalised)
1. Some Basic Concepts Of Chemistry
This foundational chapter introduces the scope and importance of chemistry, often called the "science of atoms and molecules". It covers the **classification of matter**, its properties, and the units used in chemical measurements (SI Units). Key concepts include the **laws of chemical combination** (Conservation of Mass, Definite Proportions, Multiple Proportions, Gay-Lussac's Law), **Dalton's Atomic Theory**, and the concepts of atoms, molecules, and ions. Quantitative aspects like **atomic and molecular masses**, the **mole concept** ($\textsf{1 mole} = 6.022 \times 10^{23}$ particles), stoichiometry of chemical reactions, and concentration terms (e.g., molarity $\textsf{M}$, molality $\textsf{m}$) are also discussed, essential for calculations.
2. Structure Of Atom
This chapter explores the internal structure of the atom, building upon earlier simple models. It details the discovery of **subatomic particles** (electron, proton, neutron) and the evolution of atomic models, from Thomson's model to Rutherford's gold foil experiment revealing the nucleus, and Bohr's model for the hydrogen atom explaining spectral lines. The chapter introduces the **quantum mechanical model**, explaining wave-particle duality (de Broglie's hypothesis $\lambda = \frac{\textsf{h}}{\textsf{p}}$), Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, atomic orbitals, quantum numbers, and rules governing electron filling (Aufbau principle, Hund's rule, Pauli exclusion principle), providing a modern view of the atom.
3. Classification Of Elements And Periodicity In Properties
This chapter explains how elements are systematically organized in the **Periodic Table**, reflecting their properties and chemical behaviour. It discusses the historical development of classification, highlighting the contributions of Mendeleev and his Periodic Law. The **Modern Periodic Table**, based on the atomic number, is presented, explaining the arrangement of elements into periods and groups. The **periodicity of properties** such as atomic radius, ionic radius, ionisation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, and electronegativity is discussed, showing how these properties change in a predictable manner across periods and down groups, facilitating the study of chemical properties.
4. Chemical Bonding And Molecular Structure
This crucial chapter explores how atoms combine to form molecules and the forces holding them together. It covers different types of **chemical bonds**: **ionic bonds** (formed by complete electron transfer), **covalent bonds** (formed by sharing of electrons), and coordinate covalent bonds. Concepts like **Lewis structures**, formal charge, bond parameters (length, angle, energy), resonance, and polarity are discussed. Theories like **VSEPR Theory** for predicting molecular shapes, **Valence Bond Theory (VBT)** explaining orbital overlap and hybridization, and **Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT)** are introduced. Intermolecular forces like Van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding are also covered, influencing physical properties.
5. States Of Matter
This chapter discusses the three physical states of matter – solid, liquid, and gas – and the forces (intermolecular forces) that determine these states. It focuses particularly on the **gaseous state**, explaining the **gas laws** (Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, Gay-Lussac's Law, Avogadro's Law) and the **Ideal Gas Equation** ($\textsf{PV = nRT}$). Dalton's law of partial pressures and Graham's law of diffusion are covered. The **Kinetic Theory of Gases** is introduced to explain the behaviour of gases based on microscopic particle motion. The properties of liquids, like vapour pressure, viscosity, and surface tension, are also discussed.
6. Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations in physical and chemical processes. This chapter introduces fundamental concepts like system, surroundings, state functions, and internal energy ($\textsf{U}$). The **First Law of Thermodynamics** ($\Delta \textsf{U} = \textsf{Q} + \textsf{W}$), a statement of energy conservation, and the concept of enthalpy ($\Delta \textsf{H}$) are central. **Hess's Law** of constant heat summation is used for calculating enthalpy changes. The **Second Law of Thermodynamics** introduces entropy ($\Delta \textsf{S}$) and the spontaneity of processes. **Gibbs Free Energy** ($\Delta \textsf{G} = \Delta \textsf{H} - \textsf{T}\Delta \textsf{S}$) is used to predict spontaneity and relates to equilibrium.
7. Equilibrium
This chapter focuses on the state of **equilibrium** in reversible physical and chemical processes, where forward and reverse reaction rates are equal. It covers **chemical equilibrium**, introducing the Law of Mass Action and the **equilibrium constant** ($\textsf{K}_\text{c}$ and $\textsf{K}_\text{p}$), which indicates the extent of a reaction. **Le Chatelier's principle** is explained to predict the effect of changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure on equilibrium position. **Ionic equilibrium** is also discussed, including acid-base theories, pH scale ($\textsf{pH} = -\textsf{log}[\textsf{H}^+]$), buffer solutions, solubility product, and common ion effect.
8. Redox Reactions
Redox reactions involve simultaneous **oxidation** and **reduction**, which fundamentally represent the transfer of electrons. This chapter defines oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer and change in oxidation numbers. Rules for assigning oxidation numbers are provided. Various types of redox reactions are discussed. The process of **balancing redox reactions** using the oxidation number method and the ion-electron method is explained. The chapter also introduces the concept of electrochemical cells (Galvanic and Electrolytic) where redox reactions are utilized to produce or consume electrical energy.
9. Hydrogen
This chapter focuses on the element **hydrogen**, the lightest element with unique properties and position in the periodic table. It discusses isotopes of hydrogen (protium, deuterium, tritium), methods of preparation (laboratory and industrial), and its physical and chemical properties. Compounds of hydrogen, such as water (its structure and properties) and hydrogen peroxide ($\textsf{H}_2\textsf{O}_2$), are covered. Different types of hydrides (ionic, covalent, metallic) are explained. The chapter highlights the uses of hydrogen and its potential as a future fuel, particularly relevant for sustainable energy discussions in India.
10. The S-Block Elements
This chapter deals with the chemistry of the **s-block elements**, which include Alkali Metals (Group 1) and Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2). Their electronic configurations and general characteristics, such as atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, hydration enthalpy, and metallic nature, are discussed, showing trends within the groups. The methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, and uses of important compounds of these elements (e.g., $\textsf{NaOH}$, $\textsf{Na}_2\textsf{CO}_3$, $\textsf{CaO}$, $\textsf{CaCO}_3$) are explained. The chapter highlights the diagonal relationship between elements like Li and Mg, and Be and Al.
11. The P-Block Elements
This chapter provides an introduction to the **p-block elements**, located in groups 13 to 18 of the periodic table, excluding Helium. It discusses their general electronic configuration and trends in properties. The chemistry of specific groups is explored, focusing on Boron family (Group 13) and Carbon family (Group 14). Important compounds of Boron (e.g., borax, boric acid, diborane) and Carbon (e.g., oxides of carbon, silicon compounds like silicates, zeolites) are discussed. The chapter highlights the anomalous behaviour of the first element of each group and diagonal relationships.
12. Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles And Techniques
This chapter serves as an essential foundation for organic chemistry, the study of carbon compounds. It explains the unique properties of carbon, such as **catenation** and **tetravalency**, leading to diverse structures. Classification and the **IUPAC nomenclature** system for naming organic compounds are introduced. Concepts like isomerism, types of chemical reactions (substitution, addition, elimination, rearrangement), and bond fission (homolytic, heterolytic) are discussed. Reactive intermediates (carbocations, carbanions, free radicals) and electronic effects (inductive, resonance, hyperconjugation) that influence reactivity are explained. Methods for the purification and qualitative/quantitative analysis of organic compounds are also covered.
13. Hydrocarbons
This chapter focuses on **hydrocarbons**, organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. They are classified into **aliphatic** (saturated alkanes, unsaturated alkenes and alkynes) and **aromatic** hydrocarbons. The nomenclature, isomerism, methods of preparation, physical properties, and characteristic chemical reactions (e.g., substitution in alkanes, addition in alkenes/alkynes, combustion, pyrolysis) for each class are discussed in detail. The unique stability and structure of **benzene**, the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon, and the concept of aromaticity are also explained, providing a fundamental understanding of these essential organic families.
14. Environmental Chemistry
This chapter addresses the chemical processes occurring in the environment and the impact of human activities. It discusses **environmental pollution** – air, water, and soil pollution – identifying major pollutants and their sources (e.g., industrial emissions, vehicular exhaust, pesticides). Concepts like acid rain, ozone layer depletion, greenhouse effect, and global warming are explained from a chemical perspective. Strategies for controlling environmental pollution and the importance of green chemistry for designing environmentally friendly processes are highlighted, linking chemistry to real-world environmental issues and sustainability.